IMF AND India Relations free essay sample

During the Great Depression of the 1930s, countries attempted to shore up their failing economies by sharply raising barriers to foreign trade, devaluing their currencies to compete against each other for export markets, and curtailing their citizens freedom to hold foreign exchange. These attempts proved to be self-defeating. World trade declined sharply (see chart below), and employment and living standards plummeted in many countries. This breakdown in international monetary cooperation led the IMFs founders to plan an institution charged with overseeing the international monetary system—the system of exchange rates and international payments that enables countries and their citizens to buy goods and services from each other. The new global entity would ensure exchange rate stability and encourage its member countries to eliminate exchange restrictions that hindered trade. The Bretton Woods agreement The IMF was conceived in July 1944, when representatives of 45 countries meeting in the town of Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in the northeastern United States, agreed on a framework for international economic cooperation, to be established after the Second World War. We will write a custom essay sample on IMF AND India Relations or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page They believed that such a framework was necessary to avoid a repetition of the disastrous economic policies that had contributed to the Great Depression. The IMF came into formal existence in December 1945, when its first 29 member countries signed its Articles of Agreement. It began operations on March 1, 1947. Later that year, France became the first country to borrow from the IMF. The IMFs membership began to expand in the late 1950s and during the 1960s as many African countries became independent and applied for membership. But the Cold War limited the Funds membership, with most countries in the Soviet sphere of influence not joining. 1. 2 IMF: The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization that was initiated in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference and formally created in 1945 by 29 member countries. The IMFs stated goal was to assist in the reconstruction of the worlds international payment system post–World War II. Countries contribute money to a pool through a quota system from which countries with payment imbalances can borrow funds temporarily. Through this activity and others such as surveillance of its members economies and the demand for self-correcting policies, the IMF works to improve the economies of its member countries. The IMF describes itself as â€Å"an organization of 188 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world. † The organizations stated objectives are to promote international economic co-operation, international trade, employment, and exchange rate stability, including by making financial resources available to member countries to meet balance of payments needs Its headquarters are in Washington, D. C. , United States. 1. 3 Member countries IMF member states IMF member states not accepting the obligations of Article VIII, Sections 2, 3, and 4 The 188 members of the IMF include 187 members of the UN and the Republic of Kosovo. All members of the IMF are also International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) members and vice versa. Former members are Cuba (which left in 1964) and the Republic of China, which was ejected from the UN in 1980 after losing the support of the US President Jimmy Carter and was replaced by the Peoples Republic of China. However, Taiwan Province of China is still listed in the official IMF indices. [ Apart from Cuba, the other UN states that do not belong to the IMF are Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Nauru and North Korea. The former Czechoslovakia was expelled in 1954 for failing to provide required data and was readmitted in 1990, after the Velvet Revolution. Poland withdrew in 1950—allegedly pressured by the Soviet Union—but returned in 1986. Qualifications: Any country may apply to be a part of the IMF. Post-IMF formation, in the early post war period, rules for IMF membership were left relatively loose. Members needed to make periodic membership payments towards their quota, to refrain from currency restrictions unless granted IMF permission, to abide by the Code of Conduct in the IMF Articles of Agreement, and to provide national economic information. However, stricter rules were imposed on governments that applied to the IMF for funding. The countries that joined the IMF between 1945 and 1971 agreed to keep their exchange rates secured at rates that could be adjusted only to correct a fundamental disequilibrium in the balance of payments, and only with the IMFs agreement. Some members have a very difficult relationship with the IMF and even when they are still members they do not allow themselves to be monitored. Argentina for example refuses to participate in an Article IV Consultation with the IMF. Benefits: Member countries of the IMF have access to information on the economic policies of all member countries, the opportunity to influence other members’ economic policies, technical assistance in banking, fiscal affairs, and exchange matters, financial support in times of payment difficulties, and increased opportunities for trade and investment. Main Countries In the IMF The main member of the IMF is the US, which also enjoys exclusive veto power. Other countries that enjoy voting rights are Japan, Germany, France, China and the UK as its main member. Based on the quota system, the IMF assigns each member country with voting power, subscriptions and special drawing rights (SDRs). Presently there are memberships of 184 countries over the world and a staff of approximately 2,680 from 139 countries. Total Quotas to the extent of $312 billion (as of 8/31/05). Loans outstanding $71 billion to 82 countries, of which $10 billion to 59 on concessional terms (as of 8/31/05) and technical Assistance provided 381 person years during FY2005. Surveillance consultations concluded 129 countries during FY2005, of which 118 voluntarily published information on their consultation. 1. 3 Functions The IMF works to foster global growth and economic stability. It provides policy advice and financing to members in economic difficulties and also works with developing nations to help them achieve macroeconomic stability and reduce poverty. The rationale for this is that private international capital markets function imperfectly and many countries have limited access to financial markets. Such market imperfections, together with balance of payments financing, provide the justification for official financing, without which many countries could only correct large external payment imbalances through measures with adverse effects on both national and international economic prosperity. The IMF can provide other sources of financing to countries in need that would not be available in the absence of an economic stabilization program supported by the Fund. Upon initial IMF formation, its two primary functions were: to oversee the fixed exchange rate arrangements between countries, thus helping national governments manage their exchange rates and allowing these governments to prioritise economic growth, and to provide short-term capital to aid balance-of-payments. This assistance was meant to prevent the spread of international economic crises. The Fund was also intended to help mend the pieces of the international economy post the Great Depression and World War II. The IMFs role was fundamentally altered after the floating exchange rates post 1971. It shifted to examining the economic policies of countries with IMF loan agreements to determine if a shortage of capital was due to economic fluctuations or economic policy. The IMF also researched what types of government policy would ensure economic recovery. The new challenge is to promote and implement policy that reduces the frequency of crises among the emerging market countries, especially the middle-income countries that are open to massive capital outflows. Rather than maintaining a position of oversight of only exchange rates, their function became one of â€Å"surveillance† of the overall macroeconomic performance of its member countries. Their role became a lot more active because the IMF now manages economic policy instead of just exchange rates. In addition, the IMF negotiates conditions on lending and loans under their policy of conditionality, which was established in the 1950s. Low-income countries can borrow on concessional terms, which means there is a period of time with no interest rates, through the Extended Credit Facility (ECF), the Standby Credit Facility (SCF) and the Rapid Credit Facility (RCF). Non concessional loans, which include interest rates, are provided mainly through Stand-By Arrangements (SBA), the Flexible Credit Line (FCL), the Precautionary and Liquidity Line (PLL), and the Extended Fund Facility. The IMF provides emergency assistance via the newly introduced Rapid Financing Instrument (RFI) to all its members facing urgent balance of payments needs. Surveillance of the global economy The IMF is mandated to oversee the international monetary and financial systemand monitor the economic and financial policies of its 188 member countries. This activity is known as surveillance and facilitates international co-operation. Since the demise of the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates in the early 1970s, surveillance has evolved largely by way of changes in procedures rather than through the adoption of new obligations. The responsibilities of the Fund changed from those of guardian to those of overseer of members’ policies. The Fund typically analyses the appropriateness of each member country’s economic and financial policies for achieving orderly economic growth, and assesses the consequences of these policies for other countries and for the global economy. In 1995 the International Monetary Fund began work on data dissemination standards with the view of guiding IMF member countries to disseminate their economic and financial data to the public. The International Monetary and Financial Committee (IMFC) endorsed the guidelines for the dissemination standards and they were split into two tiers: The General Data Dissemination System (GDDS) and theSpecial Data Dissemination Standard (SDDS). The International Monetary Fund executive board approved the SDDS and GDDS in 1996 and 1997 respectively, and subsequent amendments were published in a revisedGuide to the General Data Dissemination System. The system is aimed primarily at statisticians and aims to improve many aspects of statistical systems in a country. It is also part of the World Bank Millennium Development Goals and Poverty Reduction Strategic Papers. The primary objective of the GDDS is to encourage IMF member countries to build a framework to improve data quality and increase statistical capacity building. Upon building a framework, a country can evaluate statistical needs, set priorities in improving the timeliness, transparency, reliability and accessibility of financial and economic data. Some countries initially used the GDDS, but later upgraded to SDDS. Some entities that are not themselves IMF members also contribute statistical data to the systems: Palestinian Authority – GDDS Hong Kong – SDDS Macao – GDDS[14] EU institutions: the European Central Bank for the Eurozone – SDDS Eurostat for the whole EU – SDDS, thus providing data from Cyprus (not using any DDSystem on its own) and Malta (using only GDDS on its own) Conditionality of loans IMF conditionality is a set of policies or conditions that the IMF requires in exchange for financial resources. The IMF does not require collateral from countries for loans but rather requires the government seeking assistance to correct its macroeconomic imbalances in the form of policy reform. If the conditions are not met, the funds are withheld. Conditionality is perhaps the most controversial aspect of IMF policies. The concept of conditionality was introduced in an Executive Board decision in 1952 and later incorporated in the Articles of Agreement. Conditionality is associated with economic theory as well as an enforcement mechanism for repayment. Stemming primarily from the work of Jacques Polak in the Funds research department, the theoretical underpinning of conditionality was the monetary approach to the balance of payments. Structural adjustment Some of the conditions for structural adjustment can include: Cutting expenditures, also known as austerity. Focusing economic output on direct export and resource extraction, Devaluation of currencies, Trade liberalisation, or lifting import and export restrictions, Increasing the stability of investment (by supplementing foreign direct investment with the opening of domestic stock markets), Balancing budgets and not overspending, Removing price controls and state subsidies, Privatization, or divestiture of all or part of state-owned enterprises, Enhancing the rights of foreign investors vis-a-vis national laws, Improving governance and fighting corruption. These conditions have also been sometimes labelled as the Washington Consensus. Benefits These loan conditions ensure that the borrowing country will be able to repay the Fund and that the country wont attempt to solve their balance of payment problems in a way that would negatively impact the international economy. The incentive problem of moral hazard, which is the actions of economic agents maximising their own utility to the detriment of others when they do not bear the full consequences of their actions, is mitigated through conditions rather than providing collateral; countries in need of IMF loans do not generally possess internationally valuable collateral anyway. Conditionality also reassures the IMF that the funds lent to them will be used for the purposes defined by the Articles of Agreement and provides safeguards that country will be able to rectify its macroeconomic and structural imbalances. In the judgment of the Fund, the adoption by the member of certain corrective measures or policies will allow it to repay the Fund, thereby ensuring that the same resources will be available to support other members. As of 2004, borrowing countries have had a very good track record for repaying credit extended under the Funds regular lending facilities with full interest over the duration of the loan. This indicates that Fund lending does not impose a burden on creditor countries, as lending countries receive market-rate interest on most of their quota subscription, plus any of their own-currency subscriptions that are loaned out by the Fund, plus all of the reserve assets that they provide the Fund. Criticisms In some quarters, the IMF has been criticised for being out of touch with local economic conditions, cultures, and environments in the countries they are requiring policy reform. [6] The Fund knows very little about what public spending on programs like public health and education actually means, especially in African countries; they have no feel for the impact that their proposed national budget will have on people. The economic advice the IMF gives might not always take into consideration the difference between what spending means on paper and how it is felt by citizens. For example, some people believe that Jeffrey Sachs work shows that the Funds usual prescription is budgetary belt tightening to countries who are much too poor to own belts. It has been said that the IMFs role as a generalist institution specialising in macroeconomic issues needs reform. Conditionality has also been criticised because a country can pledge collateral of acceptable assets to obtain waivers on certain conditions. However, that assumes that all countries have the capability and choice to provide acceptable collateral. One view is that conditionality undermines domestic political institutions. The recipient governments are sacrificing policy autonomy in exchange for funds, which can lead to public resentment of the local leadership for accepting and enforcing the IMF conditions. Political instability can result from more leadership turnover as political leaders are replaced in electoral backlashes. IMF conditions are often criticised for their bias against economic growth and reduce government services, thus increasing unemployment. Another criticism is that IMF programs are only designed to address poor governance, excessive government spending, excessive government intervention in markets, and too much state ownership. This assumes that this narrow range of issues represents the only possible problems; everything is standardised and differing contexts are ignored. A country may also be compelled to accept conditions it would not normally accept had they not been in a financial crisis in need of assistance. It is claimed that conditionalities retard social stability and hence inhibit the stated goals of the IMF, while Structural Adjustment Programs lead to an increase in poverty in recipient countries. [20] The IMF sometimes advocates â€Å"austerity programmes,† cutting public spending and increasing taxes even when the economy is weak, to bring budgets closer to a balance, thus reducing budget deficits. Countries are often advised to lower their corporate tax rate. In Globalization and Its Discontents, Joseph E. Stiglitz, former chief economist and senior vice-president at the World Bank, criticises these policies. He argues that by converting to a more monetarist approach, the purpose of the fund is no longer valid, as it was designed to provide funds for countries to carry out Keynesian reflations, and that the IMF was not participating in a conspiracy, but it was reflecting the interests and ideology of the Western financial community. Reform The IMF is only one of many international organisations and it is a generalist institution for macroeconomic issues only; its core areas of concern in developing countries are very narrow. One proposed reform is a movement towards close partnership with other specialist agencies to better productivity. The IMF has little to no communication with other international organisations such as UN specialist agencies like UNICEF, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). Jeffrey Sachs argues in The End of Poverty: international institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank have the brightest economists and the lead in advising poor countries on how to break out of poverty, but the problem is development economics. Development economics needs the reform, not the IMF. He also notes that IMF loan conditions need to be partnered with other reforms such as trade reform in developed nations, debt cancellation, and increased financial assistance for investments in basic infrastructure to be effective. IMF loan conditions cannot stand alone and produce change; they need to be partnered with other reforms or other conditions as applicable. 1. 4 Reasons for Founding the IMF In an American town called Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, representatives of 45 western countries, led by the US and UK, and not including the Soviet Union and communist bloc countries, agreed to establish a global economic institution. Of these, 29 countries signed the Articles of Agreement that included the following objectives: Eliminate any disastrous repetitions of the Great Depression. Facilitate global financial stability by stabilizing prevailing exchange rates. Reduce poverty so that economic growth is triggered. Increase international trade and employment. 1. 5 Responsibilities of IMF:- Article 1 sets out main responsibilities of IMF which are as follows, 1) Promoting international monetary cooperation. 2) Facilitating the expansion and balanced growth of international trade. 3) Promoting exchange stability. 4) Assisting in the establishment of a multilateral system of payments and 5) Making its resources available (under adequate safeguards) to members experiencing balance of payments difficulties. Generally, the IMF is responsible for ensuring the stability of the international monetary and financial system the system of international payments and exchange rates among national currencies that enables trade to take place between countries. The Fund seeks to promote economic stability and prevent crises; to help resolve crises when they do occur; and to promote growth and alleviate poverty. 1. 6 How the IMF Works The main functions of IMF can be divided into three categories: 1. Surveillance: This involves collaboration between the IMF and its member nations. The IMF continues to assess the economic conditions of its members and offers in-depth advice to help them formulate sound economic policies. 2. Lending: Financial aid is provided to member countries who are struggling with balance of payment problems. Through Exogenous Shocks Facility (ESF) and the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF), the IMF helps its members and even collaborates with the World Bank to lend money to them. 3. Technical Assistance: The IMF offers technical assistance in areas such as banking, fiscal and economic policies as well as exchange rate policies. It also helps its member nations to fight threats such as terrorism and money-laundering. 1. 7 Achievements and Challenges of the IMF It would take an entire book to cover all the achievements of the IMF but here are some that are worth recollecting: The IMF triggered Poland’s economic transition. The transition included institution building, liberalization, and macro-economic management. Initiatives by the IMF initiatives triggered economic growth, liberalized prices and the spread of democratic institutions in countries like the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic the Baltics and Hungary. In 2008, the Asia Pacific region made considerable progress in addressing downside risks to economic growth. Gaining sufficient political muscle to grapple with issues that affect economic prosperity, offering speedy solutions to crises and ensuring economic transition for developing nations are some of the challenges ahead for the IMF. Critics of the IMF say that its policies often make economic crises worse because of the severity of some of the austerity measures it imposes. As the global lender of last resort, sovereign nations will normally try to find any other means they can of solving their own problems before turning to the IMF. Whichever way you look at it, with the growing risks in the global financial system, the Fund is going to be busy in the coming years, and will continue its supporting role to help countries stabilize their commodity and oil prices, pursue expansionary policies and reduce inflation. IMF Activities Highlights: The IMF works to promote global growth and economic stability and there by prevent economic crisis by encouraging countries to adopt sound economic policies. Act of being vigilant is the regular dialogue and policy advice that the IMF offers to each of its members. Generally once a year, the Fund conducts in-depth appraisals of each member countrys economic situation. It discusses with the countrys authorities the policies that are most conducive to stable exchange rates and a growing and prosperous economy. Members have the option to publish the Funds assessment, and the overwhelming majority of countries opt for transparency, making extensive information on bilateral surveillance available to the public. The IMF also combines information from individual consultations to form assessments of global and regional developments and prospects. These views on the IMFs multilateral surveillance are published twice each year in the world economic outlook and the global financial stability report. Technical assistance and training are offered mostly free of charge to help member countries strengthen their capacity to design and implement effective policies. Technical assistance is offered in several areas, including fiscal policy, monetary and exchange rate policies, banking and financial system supervision and regulation, and statistics. CHAPTER 2: INDIA’S ENTRY IN IMF India became member of IMF in 27th December 1945, as one of the IMFs original members.. India is permanent member of IMF. India became a creditor to the International Monetary Fund in May 2003 on the basis of its strong balance of payments and foreign exchange reserves position. India contributed $498 million to the IMFs Financial Transaction Plan, thus turning from a debtor into a lender to the IMF. It made a contribution of $498 million to the International Monetary Fund. The Reserve Bank of Indias latest figures say that Indias official reserve assets with the IMF had risen to $1,312 million till January 2004. The IMF Resident Office in New Delhi was opened in 1991. The primary function of the office is to facilitate the flow of information between the Government of India, the Reserve Bank of India, and the IMF. The current resident representative of the IMF in India is Michael Wattleworth. The office also employs Poonam Gupta, an economist on leave from IMF headquarters and Sudip Mohapatra as Economist. Alex Jaini has been the Administrative Officer since the office was opened. Raghuram G Rajan, Professor of Finance at the Graduate School of Business, University of Chicago, is the first person of Indian origin chosen by the International Monetary Fund as its chief economist. At 40, he is not only the youngest individual to hold this position, but also the first from a developing nation. Co-author of the book Saving Capitalism from the Capitalists, (Crown Business, New York, 2003), Rajan has sought to steer clear of the ideological position espoused by the extreme-right Chicago school of economists. He is a firm believer in the virtues of a free market system. He is an electrical engineering graduate from the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi and also holds an MBA from the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad. B (Bobby) P Mishra, additional secretary in the finance ministry, is India Executive Director to the International Monetary Fund. Bobby Mishra, who handled the Fund Bank and external finance division in the Department of Economic Affairs, succeeded Yaga V Reddy at the IMF, who returned after just a few months into his tenure to take over as the Reserve Bank of India Governor. Prior to Y V Reddy, Vijay Kelkar, was assigned to the IMF. Financial Assistance While India has not been a frequent user of IMF resources, IMF credit has been instrumental in helping India respond to emerging balance of payments problems on two occasions. In 1981-82, India borrowed SDR 3. 9 billion under an Extended Fund Facility, the largest arrangement in IMF history at the time. In 1991-93, India borrowed a total of SDR 2. 2 billion under two stand by arrangements, and in 1991 it borrowed SDR 1. 4 billion under the Compensatory Financing Facility. Technical Assistance In recent years, the Fund has provided India with technical assistance in a number of areas, including the development of the government securities market, foreign exchange market reform, public expenditure management, tax and customs administration, and strengthening statistical systems in connection with the Special Data Dissemination Standards. Since 1981 the IMF Institute has provided training to Indian officials in national accounts, tax administration, balance of payments compilation, monetary policy, and other areas. CHAPTER 3: IMF’S ROLE IN INDIAN ECONOMY 3. 1 Benefits of becoming IMF member: IMF has played an importance role in Indian economy. IMF had provided economic assistance from time to time to India and has also provided appropriate consultancy in determination of various policies in the country. India is the founder member of IMF. It played a significant role in the formulation of Fund Policies. The Finance Minister is ex-officio Governor in IMF Board of Governors. Till 1970, India was among the first five nations having the highest quota with IMF and due to this status India was allotted a permanent place in Executive Board of Directors. India has taken loans in foreign currencies from IMF or improving its balance of payments imbalances. India has also taken technical consultancy for solving its internal economic problems. The expert groups of the IMF have visited India on various occasions. In addition to this India also got the following benefits of becoming the IMF members: 1. Independence of the Indian Rupee: Before the establishment of the IMF, the Indian rupee was linked with the British Pound Sterling. But Indian rupee has become independent after the establishment of IMF. Its value is expressed in terms of gold. It is not determined by the Pound Sterling. It means that Indian rupee is easily convertible into the currency of any other country. 2. Membership of the World Bank: India has become a member of the World Bank also by virtue of its membership of the Fund. As a result, India got several loan facilities from the World Bank for the development purposes. 3. Availability of Foreign Currencies: The Government of India has been purchasing foreign currencies from the Fund from time to time to meet the requirements of development activities. The large amount of availability of foreign currencies has greatly promoted the economic development of the country. 4. Reputation in International Circle: India is one of those six countries which have occupied a special place in the Board of Directors of the Fund. Thus, India had played a creditable role in determining the policies of the Fund. This has increased India’s prestige in the international circles. India takes keen interest in the formulation of Fund’s policies. 5. Guidance and Advice: Being member of the Fund, India got the expert opinion from the Fund for solving its economic problems. The attitude of the Fund towards India has always remained sympathetic. The Fund has given valuable advice to the Government of India with regard to the financing of the Five-Year Plans. 6. Timely Help: India has received timely help from the Fund to eliminate the deficit on its balance of payments. The Fund granted loans to meet the financial difficult is arising out of the Indo-Pak conflict of 1965 and 1971. Thus, the fund has given timely help to solve economic crisis. 7. Freedom from Sterling: Indian rupee was convertible into other currencies through the medium of sterling before becoming the member of the fund. With the fixation of paper value of the rupee in gold, Indian currency is now freely convertible into any other currency. 8. Sale and Purchase of Foreign Exchange: Fund has entrusted the sale and purchase of foreign exchange worth more than Rs. 2 lakh to Reserve Bank of India. The latter cannot enter into any transaction of foreign exchange that is of the value of less than Rs. 2 lakh. 9. Economic Consultation: In the financial management of Five- Year Plans, IMF has given valuable advice to Government of India and to suggest measures for its economic development. 10. Help during Emergency: India got a large amount of financial assistance from the Fund to solve its economic crisis arising due to natural calamities like flood, earthquakes, famines etc. 3. 2 Economic liberalization in India By 1985, India had started having balance of payments problems. By the end of 1990, it was in a serious economic crisis. The government was close to default, its central bank had refused new credit and foreign exchange reserves had been reduced to such a point that India could barely finance three weeks’ worth of imports which resulted India to airlift its gold reserves as a pledge with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for a loan. Causes and consequences The crisis was caused by currency overvaluation; the current account deficit, and investor confidence played significant role in the sharp exchange rate depreciation. The economic crisis was primarily due to the large and growing fiscal imbalances over the 1980s. During the mid-eighties, India started having balance of payments problems. Precipitated by the Gulf War, India’s oil import bill swelled, exports slumped, credit dried up, and investors took their money out. Large fiscal deficits, over time, had a spill over effect on the trade deficit culminating in an external payments crisis. By the end of 1990, India

visit to earth observatory essays

visit to earth observatory essays Every year the Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory holds an open house in which scientists share their studies and really let the public see what and how they do what they do. Scientists at this research center are working together studying different fields of the Geologic sciences ranging from Oceanography, Geochemistry, Seismology, and even Marine Biology share their findings with the public. This year like every other year, they set up deferent exhibits and share the current research, studies and illustrations of the different Geologic processes along with their findings with anybody who is interested. For this assignment, we were asked to describe five of the exhibits from the LDEO open house. The five exhibits that called my attention the most were the Seismology, Geochemistry, Oceanography, Demonstration of Hard and Soft behavior of the surface of our, and the Water Current Exhibit. 1- Seismology in simple terms is the study of earthquakes; it involves observations of natural ground vibrations and artificial vibrations. In this exhibit, the scientists were explaining how and earthquake forms and how it can be detected even hundreds of miles away via a Seismograph. Someone asked the question what is an earthquake. And the response was well, its a trembling or shaking of the ground causes by a sudden release of energy, energy that is stored in the rocks beneath the surface. I thought that was great so then, I asked how is this energy stored? And his explanation was very well illustrated by a simple demonstration. There sere two bricks joined together by a rubber band, at the end of the first brick there was a nylon thread which was being pulled slowly. He said imagine these two bricks are two plates floating on the mantle, as one moves slowly, it is pulling the rubber band that is attached to the other brick and tension is building over time then very sudden a nd quickly the rubb...

Difference between the Jurisdiction of State of California and the Assignment

Difference between the Jurisdiction of State of California and the Federal Court System - Assignment Example National security policy revolves around the major national security issues and concerns of the United States. This also emphasizes on how well the administration can implement the policy and how well they can plan out to deal with the issues addressing national security of the United States. In short, National Security is a legal document that deals with the strategies and policies; reviewed periodically by the executive bodies of the United States Government in order to preserve the national peace, security, and defense of the country. In recent years after the incident of 9/11, the United States’ National security Policy has faced many changes due to different reasons such as the rise and threats of terrorism that has struck the security of the entire nation, emergence of new allies in the war against terrorism, dealing with political and economic security. The main objective of the national security policy of the United States is to safeguard the rights, security and to maintain the legitimate interests of its citizens against any threat either affected by the internal factors or the external ones. The idea of national security became an official imperative point of the United States foreign policy when U. S president Harry S. Truman signed on National Security Act of 1947 on July 26th, 1947. The key elements of national security policy are military, politics, economics, energy, natural resources, society and diplomacy that are believed to be the core of the policy (Davis: 2010). Executive bodies play an important role in structuring the basics of US foreign policy but at the same time there are some other players are also involved, those who affect directly the policy besides the power of US President.  Ã‚  

Iraqi Refugee Settlement in Australia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Iraqi Refugee Settlement in Australia - Essay Example Their state of mind tends not to be trustful or overly optimistic; indeed, these are people who have escaped from wars, from persecution for beliefs or affiliations, and in many cases suffered human rights violations. These people often include those whom have arrived in Australia under the government's Humanitarian Program, in the refugee stream, as Special Humanitarian Entrants, and have been granted permanent protection visas after arrival. There also include, and this is an important distinction, people that have arrived as asylum seekers and, after an assessment, have been granted only temporary protection visas. Classification issues, whether one is granted permanent or temporary protection, is highly relevant. The Iraqi communities in Australia have become an increasingly important concern as war rages in their homeland and as more and more Iraqis seek refuge in Australia. The 2001 Census recorded 24,760 Iraq-born people in Australia (an increase of 77 per cent over 1996); these people were diverse in terms of precise ethnic backgrounds, and actually included Arabic Iraqis (44 per cent), Assyrian Iraqis (41 per cent) and Kurdish-speaking groups from Iraq (4 per cent). (Victorian Multicultural Affairs, 2003) As an instance of local increases in Iraqi refugee populations, Victoria's Iraq-born population has increased from 3500 in 1996 to 6773 in 2003; this is a significant 93 per cent increase (Department of Victoria Communities, 2003). Some 77 percent of Iraqi arrivals since 1996 have been humanitarian entrants (refugees). Others have come as family members or as skilled migrants. Some came as unauthorised arrivals by boat, were put in detention centres, and were subsequently recognized as refugees, but were only granted temporary protection. Thus, not only is the Iraqi population in Australia fractured by diverse ethnic affiliations, but they are also present under different legal designations. Many settled in NSW and other state; Greater Shepparton is a city of some 55,000 people, 180 kilometres north of Melbourne, where many Iraqis have decided to settle. Local estimates are that the Iraqi community living in the Shepparton area in 2004 numbered about 3000 people, including Australian-born children. There are also some seasonal increases. The refugees have been mainly Muslims from the centre and south of Iraq. Various accounts are given of the first Iraqis coming to Shepparton. The first few Iraqis apparently came to the fruit and vegetable-producing Goulburn Valley in the early 1990s seeking employment. Larger numbers of Iraqi refugees arrived from 1997, having come from camps in Saudi Arabia and gone first to Sydney and Melbourne, then on to Kyabram, Cobram, and Shepparton. These refugees were granted permanent protection status. Within a couple of years, most of the Iraqis who had come to Kyabram relocated to Shepparton. Then, from 1999, some Iraqi refugees started arr iving in Australia by boat and were placed in detention centres and later released with Temporary Protection Visas. Some of these Iraqis settled in Shepparton with the support of the Ethnic Community Council. There were some 700 to 800 Iraqis on

UK gym market and health clubs Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

UK gym market and health clubs - Dissertation Example The current trend in this particular industry focuses on adding boiled food or packed nutritious product in one’s diet. Along with this, there is a clear relation between identified customer segments and their individual propensity to purchase additional products, such as supplements. High-income group members prefer to buy most healthy and expensive products, on the contrary, members of 40 plus age group focus on products which can make their bones strong. Youth that is health conscious concentrates on muscle building products and food supplements. In many of the previous researchers, customer segmentation is discussed with utmost importance but the majority of the researchers neglected to discuss food supplements.On the basis of the above discussion, it can be said that health is increasingly gaining importance in people’s perception. Moreover, it is good and toned body which is attracting people to go to the gym and run on the treadmill. Here, health becomes the seco nd concern and slim and attractive body is a major priority for most of the gym-goers. Also, youth is blindly following this trend and even use some prohibited drugs for muscles building. However, gym and health club industry are increasing health awareness among the people and educating them about health issues. Thus the trend of going to the gym is proving healthy for the entire country as obesity has become a point of concern for the government. In addition to this, people themselves are becoming health conscious.... The changing trends of the market are focusing on improving the health of the nation by making them active. In addition to this the current trend is focusing on improving children’s fitness because child obesity is increasing at alarming rate (Barnett 2011). According to Beale (2011) maintain fitness of the children can prove a very crucial part in health industry as they can learn to maintain good health from very young age. Along with this, they can contribute their part in improving nation’s health. Also, making children healthy makes a complete generation healthy. Current trends in health clubs in London with regard to services offered include triathlon participation, innovation in exercise classes, and dynamic use of exercise equipments, injury and sports medicine facilities. Triathlon based activities include cycling, running and swimming which are now offered in the health clubs. Thus, sports activities are also a new trend in London’s health clubs (BBC Ne ws 2006). According to Llyod (2011) the most important service provided in the gyms and health clubs is exercise. Hence constant innovation in these exercises is required. It includes celebrity endorsed exercise classes and Adidas zone cycling which is a fun and energising workout. In order to promptly uses the exercise equipment, health clubs and gyms are nowadays are dynamically using them. For example, tennis-specific programmes, power plate and bikini workout. Another service trend of health clubs are services of sports medicine professionals and injury specialists. With the help of thee professionals, gym goers can improve their running techniques and recover their injuries. Along with this, they get nutritional advice which aid

The UK Pension System: Overview of Changes

The UK Pension System: Overview of Changes The aim of this essay is to perform an analysis of the UK pension system, understanding its foundation and working. The core focus is to assess the statement the UK pension statement is fatally flawed and requires that we make fundamental changes in the way we save for old age, by referring to the Pension Commission Reports, and the relative proposals that have been made recently. The essay provides an introduction to the pension system, before tackling the issues that make the system troublesome and flawed. Detailed analysis of the reports, including the Pension Act 2007 and 2008, are used as evidence of various issues with the current setup, and the proposals are judged to see if they will provide the necessary changes to improve the system in the coming years. The generic understanding of the term pension is the arrangement by which people who are no longer in employment are provided a form of income. It can also be considered as a form of savings, in which one accumulates funds without any taxes, to utilise later as retirement income (Blake, 2006). The chief difference between pension and a severance package is that the former is paid in regular instalments, while the latter is paid as lump sum at the time of departure from employment, or shortly thereafter. Where pensions are granted at the time of retirement from the workforce, they are referred to as retirement plans or superannuation. The flexibility of the retirement plan is that it can be set up by employers, insurance companies, government or trade unions, to cater for the needs of the workforce upon its exit from employment due to reaching the maturity age that is pre-decided as the point to move out. This is normally at 60 years, although recent changes have pushed it to 65 years (Blake, 2006). Pension is referred by different names in different countries; the Americans call it a retirement plan, in Australia it is known as superannuation, and in the UK it is regarded as pension scheme (Blake, 1997). Types of Pensions In order to analyze the pension system objectively in light of the documents, it is important to understand the different types of pensions. There are three common types of pension in practice around the world (Blake, 2006). These are: Employment-based pensions: Often regarded as a deferred form of compensation, this is primarily an arrangement between the employer and employee, aimed at providing a steady income to the employee once they are no longer in employment due to reaching maturity or retirement age. Both employer and employee make regular contributions to this fund during the period of employment. Social / State pensions: These are funds created by national governments for the benefit of their citizens and residents. Contributions into these funds are made by the nationals of the country throughout their working life, and the benefits they end up receiving after retirement are based on the contribution history. Two known examples of this type of pension are National Insurance (NI) in the UK and Social Security in the United States (US). Disability pensions: A more specialised form of pension that is designed to provide a regular payment if the member suffers a disability. In some cases, social pensions contain a disability clause which ensures a regular income to individuals should they have to retire earlier than normal, in the event of some disability. Determination of Benefits Pension or retirement plans can be classified into two main types, on the basis of the benefits that they provide: defined benefit plans and defined contribution plans. The defined benefit plans follow a traditional set formula for calculating the benefits that a member will receive after retirement. It takes into account the individuals salary and years of employment (Blake, 2006). There are variances in the salary level taken; some plans take an average of the salary over the period of employment, others take the final salary as the determining value. The defined benefit plans also have a provision for early retirement; this allows employers to let go of workers who are close to the retirement age by offering supplemental benefits to the payout that will received. These benefits are paid till the time of actual retirement age being reached. The benefit for employers is that they can hire younger workers at lower pay to handle the workload. Defined benefit plans are composed of unfunded and funded plans. In unfunded plans, there no assets set aside and the benefits are paid out through the workers contributions and taxes. Funded plans use investment vehicles to place funds in, at the present time. Benefits are paid out of the return on investment that is made in the future. However, since the return is not known, the level of benefits that will be given out is also unclear (Blake, 2006). The defined contribution plans provide a payment at retirement based on the contribution made by the member during the time of employment. The contributions are maintained in an individuals account, with the amount being invested in a fund or the stock market. Returns made from the investment are credited back to the individual (Blake, 2006). The risks of the investment made are approved by the individual, with no responsibility held by either the employer or the sponsor. However, the administrators of the fund selecting the investment options are held responsible to a certain degree to ensure accountability. Additionally, defined contribution plans allow workers to decide the amount that they wish to regularly add to their retirement package, in addition to the contribution made by the employer. Pensions in the UK The UK Pension Provision can be divided into three main categories: state pensions, occupational pensions, and individual or personal pensions. The states main aim is to ensure some form of basic pension provision as a preventative measure against poverty in old age. The retirement age currently stands at 60, but is under plans to be raised to 65, and be equalised for men and women (Blake, 2003; DWP, 2009). The UK state pension dates back to the early 1900s, when it was introduced as Old Age Pension. The qualifying age at the time for receiving this benefit was 70, and there was means test that needed to be cleared prior to any payments being released (Blake, 2003). The state pension is made up of three elements: basic state pension (BSP), additional pensions and pension credit.BSP is also known as state retirement pension (SRP), and is a contribution based plan. The benefit that an individual receives is based on their NI contribution history (Budd Campbell, 2000). Additional pension relates to schemes that the government introduced to provide extra provision to the nationals, in addition to BSP. This includes the graduated retirement benefit, state earnings-related pension scheme (SERPS) and state second pension (S2P). The graduated retirement benefit ended in 1975 and the SERPS was ceased in 2002. The current S2P follows the basic principles introduced by SERPS, by taking into account the individuals NI contributions and providing benefits where earnings are below the low level identified by the state. The additional pension schemes are voluntary and individuals can opt out of making contributions to it. Pension credit was introduced in 2003 and is a means tested benefit that aims to lift a majority of retired people out of poverty. The benefit is paid after the individual reaches the age of 60, and their income from savings is below a certain level. Those with some form of savings doubly benefit when they reach the age of 65, with a second provision of the scheme kicking in, known as Savings Credit (Blake, 2003). The occupational pensions are administered by employers to provide benefits to their employees after they retire. These can be defined benefit or defined contribution schemes run by the employers, or an arranged third-party. Typically, the UK occupational schemes are jointly funded by both employer and employee, where employees contribute around 6% of their gross salary into funds that invest into equity, and provide a return of that investment to the individuals account for the future (Budd Campbell, 2000). The third category of UK Pension Provision is personal pensions. This is when individuals make arrangement with a provider like an insurance company, to make regular contributions in a scheme, similar to occupational pensions (Blake, 2003). Like the other plans, the contributions are made by the individual throughout their working life, with benefits of pension being released after retirement. The process of these benefits being released can vary; in some cases, the provider purchases a pension plan prior or at retirement for the individual. Challenges to Pensions The most important challenge faced by most nations, including the UK, is the aging of the population. With birth-rates slowing down and life expectancy increasing, a larger percentage of the population is elderly. This means that the ratio of workers to retirees is growing, meaning there are less individuals each year earning and contributing to the pension system, while there are more beneficiaries being registered each year. The current system is normally referred to as pay as you go (PAYG), in view of how it is funded and utilised (Blake, 2003). This challenge is harder to address with individuals seeking to look for alternatives to ensure a better lifestyle after retirement for themselves, than the bigger picture of a nation with a large portion of retirees falling below the poverty level. Another challenge faced is the reduction in investment into private pensions. Employers have cut the contributions they had been making as a response to the current business climate (Budd Campbell, 2000). This means that the amount available or due to be available for retirees in the future will be lesser than initially forecasted, ending up with further disparity between the need and provision of the benefits at that stage. The complexity of the UK pension system has made it harder for changes to be implemented effectively, resulting in more patch-up than complete reforms. This complexity has given rise to a sense of despair among the workforce on the ability of the state to cater to the demands of the citizens, and offer solutions that are viable and feasible in the long-run. Pensions Commission Formed in 2002, the Pensions Commission was a public body in the UK that did not come under any governmental department, but reported to the Secretary of State for Works and Pension (Pensions Commission, 2007). Its sole aim was to review the system of private pensions and savings in the nation, and make recommendations as it saw necessary on whether changes needed to be made for the future. The changes were primarily linked to the voluntary contributions made by individuals and organizations. The Commission published two reports, in 2004 and 2005. The reports provided a detailed analysis of the UK pension system at the time, its evolution over time should it remain unchanged, and recommendations on steps that were needed to formulate a new policy that was more in line with the future demand (Pensions Commission, 2007). The UK compared to the rest of Europe With limited accessibility to data from current years for the pension schemes in Europe, an analysis of a survey conducted during the late 90s shows some interesting information, highlighting the plight of the UK pension system, and the drastic need of reform in the present age (Blake, 2006). It was discovered that on the whole, 57% of the workforce in the UK who were in paid employment contributed towards a pension. This is the voluntary contribution that occupation pensions allow. The data of European Union (EU) workers showed that 79% of the contributed to a pension plan. This disparity shows the resulting imbalance in benefit payments and contributions for the UK, as well as a defining reason for a high percentage of pensioners falling below the poverty line (Blake, 2003). When the comparison was done for self-employed individuals, it was discovered that 59% of men and 47% of women in the UK contributed to a pension scheme. However, this pales in comparison to the 73% and 72% of men and women, respectively, in the EU who contributed to a pension plan (Blake, 2003). This is an addition to the point stated earlier, that signifies the growing income equality setting into the social system in the UK, and is a reflection of the divergence of income among workers. On the organization front, more employers have changed their schemes in the UK, requiring individuals to fend for themselves, and be more responsible for the provision of pension. The state has taken a backseat, to become more of an enabler and regulator (Blake, 2006). However, with increasing concerns from the citizens, the UK government in the last few years has started to investigate changes to the current system, in hope of bring improved benefits in the long run. The Turner Report In 2005, the Pensions Commission published the Turner Report, after its exhaustive research of the prevalent pension system in the UK. The report was aimed at providing the government a course of action with recommendations on steps that needed to be taken to bring a radical shift in the contributory habits, as well as the structure in place for the pension system (Pensions Commission, 2007). One of the recommendations from the report as linked to combating the population ageing challenge faced by the system. It was of the view that the retirement age be increased so that the contributory workforce numbers are improved to supplement the needs of the pensioners (Pensions Commission, 2007). Also, the age for receiving maximum benefits should be changed so that these are only available to older nationals, with others needed to invest into private pensions as a means of supplementing their retirement income. Another recommendation was for the formation of a National Pension Savings Scheme (NPSS), a semi-compulsory contribution scheme that offered individuals a set choice of investments within a constrained range of investment options (Pensions Commission, 2007). The creation of such a scheme would allow UK workers to enjoy supplementary retirement benefits without any reliance on employers to act as sponsors. However, sceptics have argued recently on the viability of such a scheme to be cost-effective or the governance policies for it to remain efficient and reactive to the changing financial conditions domestically and internationally. The National Pensions Debate The work of the Pensions Commission and the resulting Turner Report gave the UK government a wake-up call on the needs for change in the pension system. The first steps towards reform were taken in the step of opening the debate to the public. The focus of such a step was to involve the citizens into the process of deciding what was needed, as they were the chief beneficiaries of the system. The National Pensions Day, organised on 18 March 2006, brought together thousands of UK nationals on a uniform platform, to share their views and offer alternatives, in terms of the reforms needed to be auctioned by the government to have a lasting effect on the pensions system (DWP, 2009). As well as a coordinated public event through internet link-up, the UK government used an online survey to grasp a broader understanding of the mindset held within the nation on the delicate nature of the current pensions system. From the input gained due to the debate and the report produced by the independent Pension Commission, the UK government took two initiatives; it published two white papers to cover the proposals that it believed were compulsory to implement for positive change to come into the system (DWP, 2009). The first white paper, titled Security in Retirement: towards a new Pension System, outlined the governments proposals that were designed to revamp the pensions system provided they met with the requirements set within personal responsibility, fairness, simplicity, affordability and sustainability (DWP, 2009). After having formulated and published this white paper, the government brought together key business leaders and organization figureheads to offer consultative advice on the reforms that were being proposed. This collective arrangement was a means of ensuring minimum barriers to the process of change for the long term. The second white paper was titled Personal Accounts: a new way to save, was published by the government proposing the setup of a new national system of low cost personal accounts. The ideology here was to introduce a habit of saving among the UK nationals and residents, which would help in providing income after retirement. This time, the government proposed a period of public consultation on the matter, wanting to address any queries and reservations from the audience that would most be affected by it (DWP, 2008). Having gained a major consensus towards the auctioning of these reforms, the Government moved ahead with the implementation process. The process however was long-term oriented and phased, in order to allow the change to be effected positively and have long term benefits for the nation. The Pensions Act 2007 The reforms proposed to the state pensions system in the first white paper were transformed into law by this act. The changes proposed covered three key areas: the Basic State Pension (BSP), the State Second Pension (S2P) and the qualifying conditions set out for both (DWP, 2009). Some of the key changes are: The qualifying years for receiving full BSP was 39 for women and 44 for men. Effective 2010, this would be reduced to 30 for both. The annual cost of living component in BSP was linked to prices in terms of increases. This would be changed to link with earnings from 2012, provided the fiscal position allowed affordability. Easing the conditions for contribution to BSP, so that everyone can build up some entitlement, instead of those meeting the tough qualification process. From 2010, introducing national insurance credits in relation to S2P, essentially for those individuals who suffer from long term disabilities and those who have caring responsibilities, allowing them to build up some additional pension entitlement. However, one major change that was proposed linked with the issue of the ageing workforce. For long term affordability of the state pension system, it was decided necessary to implement a gradual increase in the state pension age for both men and women. The important part of this change would be the pace at which the increase has been proposed. The period for this increase was between 2024 and 2046; with the age being increased to 68 by the end of this term (DWP, 2009). The Pensions Act 2008 In continuation to the proposed reforms that were deemed necessary after the commission investigation and public debate, this act put into law most of the actions advised in the second white paper. The aim here was to encourage greater private pension saving, so that individuals were not solely reliant on the state to meet their living costs after retirement (DWP, 2009). Some of the key changes of this act are: Automatic enrolment of eligible workers into a qualifying workplace pension scheme, with effect from 2012. What this means is that workers would have to take a decision not to be part of the pension scheme provided by the employer. If any such decisions have not been made actively by the worker, he or she would be enrolled automatically to the workplace pension scheme. A minimum of 3 per cent contribution by the employer to the employees pension account, based on the earning band. This was as a supplement to the 4 per cent contribution that would be made by the employee, and the almost 1 per cent in tax relief provided by the government. 2012 would see the introduction of a new low cost savings vehicle, named as the National Employment Savings Trust (NEST). This scheme is aimed at the medium and low earners, with low charges and simplicity. The Process of Reform When analysed against the pension systems in the developed world, the prevailing UK system has shown serious flaws that have increased over time. The key factor to consider here is the ageing population. While this factor is prevalent in other developed nations running state pension systems, the problem seems less influencing for a few reasons. Canada and Australia have a lower population and a higher percentage in the active workforce. The US being the largest economy in the world has a significant pensioner population, but its higher rate of immigration has allowed it to have a workforce that contributes heavily to the pension system. The UK, however, seems in neither of these areas. It has a significant portion of its workforce nearing the retirement age in the coming decade. With immigration being tightened, the number of foreign workers entering to contribute to the pension system is not as high as required (Butler, 1997). The above point, however, points a serious flaw in the PAYG system, where the current working individuals contribute in the present day, to pay the benefits of those already retired, expecting the same for themselves when they move out of the employment age bracket. The example can be referred to as a bucket of water with a hold in the bottom. There is little accumulation, as water flows out, and the inflow is a slow stream. The need for an understanding to be developed in the public for being more responsible towards their individual needs in retirement is important. Taking personal responsibility during the working age will in turn help avoid a large number of pensioners falling below the poverty line later. Additionally, a supporting but steady role of the employer in terms of contribution to pension schemes for the employee is a step forward. Superannuation schemes in Australia have been following this model for a number of years, with new changes allowing more flexibility to the employee to choose their investment vehicle, but restricting access to the funds till retirement age (Blake, 1997). The recent financial crisis too has impacted the pension system in the UK, as most schemes had invested in several schemes and stocks that have since fallen in value or collapsed. This has resulted in a write-down for many pensioners, furthering emphasizing the failings of the government to provide better protection to pension plans. The state of economy and its stability, therefore, becomes an important factor in the overall effectiveness of the pension system in the United Kingdom. The underlying message in the reform is an acceptance of the drawbacks existing in the pension system of UK, and taking steps to rectify it. Its main aim is to introduce the concept of savings among the public, by offering simplified processes to include more of the working population in the contribution to the state plans, as well as to individual and organizational plans, thereby diversifying the sources of income after retirement. With the reform commencing in 2010, the outlook remains positive. With public involvement in the decision-making process, it is likely that the changes under implementation will be accepted without much resistance. However, critics still argue over whether there is going to be a lasting effect once all variations are completed. One of the most important factors in this would continue to be the economic condition and the sustainability of stability shown.

Hard Drives :: science

Hard Drives Hard drives have been around longer than you think. In 1956, I. B. M. had invented a disk storage unit that was very large but did not store a lot of data. It was twenty-four inches in diameter and could hold only five megabytes, which is the equivalent to three and one half floppy disks. Originally called â€Å"fixed disks† later became known as â€Å"hard disks† opposed to floppy disks. In 1973, I. B. M. released a hard drive that could hold seventeen and one half megabytes. In 1980 Seagate made the first five and one quarter inch hard disk. In the late 1980’s, three and one half inch hard disks were invented (PCIN). Although there are smaller hard disks as small as two inches in diameter, three and one half inch hard disks have been made a standard and is used most often today. The capacity in hard drives has excelled thousands of times all over from five megabytes to one hundred sixty gigabytes (160,000 megabytes) which is the equivalent to one hundred eleven thousand one hundred eleven floppy disks. The hard drive or hard disk is one of the most critical components in the operation of a computer. It is also one of the only moving parts in the computer. Sadly, many people do not know the important role it has in the storage of their data or how it even works. When you think of your hard drive, think of it as the computer’s electronic filing cabinet. Everything you load, download, or save is stored on the hard drive. In fact, ten percent of your hard drive is already used when you purchase your computer because it needs certain system operating files that are required to make the basics work. Everything you add later such as word processors, antivirus software, e-mail software, games, and internet software are extra, soon leading to an over stuffed filing cabinet (Matthew Ferrara Seminars). However, many people ask, â€Å"What is the hard drive, physically?† The hard drive can be commonly referred to as â€Å"a box†. That is what it looks like, a three and one half inch metal box. It is located inside your mainframe or tower. It sits in what is called a drive bay. Here it is secured with screws. On the bottom of the hard drive is a chip board which is the really technical and complicated pieces of the hard drive.

History Of Multifocal Bone Infarctions Health And Social Care Essay

Osteonecrosis is a common complication of corticosteroid therapy. In this survey, we report the instance of a patient with injury of both articulatio genuss 1 twelvemonth back who has been diagnosed with knee osteonecrosis affecting bilateral proximal tibial and distal thighbone likely due to microvascular hurt to proximal shinbone and distal thighbone. A 22-year-old male patient presented with a history of writhing hurt of both articulatio genuss.He had non taken any drug, In malice of some anodynes, that leads to osteonecrosis. One twelvemonth subsequently, he developed bilateral anterior articulatio genus hurting of insidious oncoming. Magnetic resonance imagination performed on admittance showed osteonecrosis of the bilateral proximal tibial and distal thighbone, about every bit pronounced in the shinbone and thighbone. Osteonecrosis is a reasonably common complication in patients with the history of corticoid usage for the intervention of assortment of systemic and arthritic ups ets. The status can attest itself anyplace in the skeletal system, most normally in the femoral caput. Distal thighbone and proximal shinbone with bilateral engagement is rather rare in the literature. Injury of both articulatio genuss and within one twelvemonth gross osteonecrosis of bilateral articulatio genus articulation is rarest presentation. BONE INFARCTION: known by other names i.e. Avascular mortification, osteonecrosis, sterile mortification, ischaemic bone mortification and AVN ) is a disease due to break of blood supply of tissues, because of vascular via media, cellular decease of bone occur that leads to prostration. It is largely occur in the country where blood supply is unstable and by terminal arterias. It is largely occur at hip articulation but late there is increased opportunity of infarction in weight bearing country of articulatio genus articulation besides and leads to gross devastation of articular surfaces and whole articulations and ligaments. There are many theories about what causes avascular mortification. Hazard factors are chemotherapy in malignant neoplastic disease patient, long term usage of intoxicant and steroid, station injury, decompression illness, vascular via media due to arterial intercalation and thrombosis due to intimal harm, Radiation, prolonged usage of bisphosphonate in osteoporo sis, blood upsets, such as reaping hook cell disease, Glycogen storage upset i.e. Gaucher disease. Commonest is idiopathic. Systemic lupus erythematous, Rheumatoid arthritis, Prolonged, repeated exposure to high force per unit areas etc. So bone infarction can happen by two ways one is primary due to direct hurt of blood supply by child or terrible injury known as self-generated osteonecrosis of the articulatio genus ( SPONK ) , is ill understood but seems to be the consequence of some type of injury to the articulatio genus. It normally affects merely one articulatio genus and most frequently a individual country within the articulatio genus. The country of bone in the articulatio genus loses its normal blood supply and may finally weaken and prostration. This typically leads to trouble and functional restrictions. The hurting is frequently sudden oncoming and increases with weight bearing, step mounting, and at dark. SPONK is most frequently seen in aged adult females with osteopo rosis and secondrily due to drawn-out exposure of hazard factors, affect multiple countries of the articulatio genus, and 80 % of people have both articulatio genuss affected.Case HistoryA 22-year-old adult male with no important medical history presented after the one twelvemonth of in important history of injury complained of left articulatio genus hurting, which he noted after making difficult work and remainder and sometime without associated injury. Pain became worse at dark.He is holding a good scope of articulatio genus gesture bilaterally but terminally terrible painful. Initially he is able to his day-to-day modus operandis but after few old ages subsequently he is non able to make his modus operandi and progressive fatigues additions, musculus neglect wasting, and failing around the joint. He is besides holding history of ictuss for which he is taking intervention but the cause is non cleared because CT encephalon is normal. Everyday research lab scrutiny showed neutrophilia, thrombocytosis, with a hemoglobin degree of 11.3 g/dL, entire WBC count 14100, N 85 % , L 44 % , M 12 % , RBC 3.84, HCT 35 % , MCV 91 % , MCH 29.5pg, MCHC32.3g/dl, RDW14.8 % , ph4.58, MPV 7.7, PCT 0.35 % , PDW 16, and a elevated ESR 101.Periphral vilification shows no sickling. An MRI of the left articulatio genus showed increased ruddy bone marrow within the distal thighbone and proximal tibia/fibula, ab initio thought to be compatible with anaemia from an unexplained inflammatory procedure. Further urologic and gastro enterologic workup was negative. There is no history of steroid or other drug consumptions along with no any drawn-out exposure of hazard factors.Clinical Photograph:Degree centigrades: UsersuserPictures2013-02-15 14.26.49.jpg Fig ( 1 ) Bilateral articulatio genus with normal skin coloring material with same degree of kneecap with mild gush in left sideXRAY OF LEFT KNEEDegree centigrades: UsersuserPictures2013-02-15 13.59.11.jpgfig ( 2 ) : radiogram of bilateral articulatio genuss joint with decresed joint infinite with distal femur median compartment articular devolution with little addition denseness of median femoral articular border.MRI OF R T KNEE JOINTDegree centigrades: UsersuserPictures2013-02-15 14.08.28.jpgC: UsersuserPictures2013-02-15 14.11.41.jpgC: UsersuserPictures2013-02-15 14.09.42.jpg Fig ( 3 ) : There is grounds of extended chronic medullary bone infarct in metaphyseal part of thighbone and shinbone with features dual line mark with deficiency of internal hydrops and widening upto the subchondral home base with prostration of the articular border of thighbone. There is marrow hydrops in subarticular part of shinbone and thighbone. Rate 2 myxoid degenerative alterations are seen in the anterior horn of sidelong semilunar cartilage and posterior horn of median semilunar cartilage, break of normal additive uninterrupted low signal strength of anterior cruciate ligament with partial break of fiber at tibial and femoral fond regard.MRI OF LEFT KNEEDegree centigrades: UsersuserPictures2013-02-15 14.11.41.jpg C: UsersuserPictures2013-02-15 14.12.39.jpgC: UsersuserPictures2013-02-15 14.12.06.jpg Fig ( 4 ) : There is grounds of extended chronic medullary bone infarct in metaphyseal part of thighbone and shinbone with features dual line mark with deficiency of internal hydrops and widening upto the subchondral home base with prostration of the articular border of thighbone. There is marrow hydrops in subarticular part of shinbone and thighbone. Tear of anterior horn of median semilunar cartilage. Modrate joint gush predominately in supra patellar pouch.MRI of BRAIN:Brain parenchyma shows normal MR morphology and grey white distinction, there is no focal parenchymal lesion. Basal gangia and thalmi are normal in volume and signal strength. Mid encephalon, Ponss, and myelin are cardinal and appear normal in signal strength. The cerebellar hemisphere are normal. Ventricular system are normal. WHOLE BODY BONE SCANC: UsersuserPictures2013-02-20 10.23.45.jpg Degree centigrades: UsersuserPictures2013-02-20 10.23.29.jpg Fig ( 5 ) : Skeltal scintigraphy done with20mci of 99m Tc-MDP endovenous and graph taken in three stages post injection revels. ( 1 ) : Flow stage ( immediate station injection ) : there is addition flow in part of bilateral articulatio genuss articulation ( 2 ) : Blood pool stage ( 5 min station injection ) : there is pooling in the part of bilateral articulatio genuss articulation ( 3 ) : Delayed stage ( 3 hour station injection ) : there is increase tracer uptake in the part of bilateral articulatio genus articulation, distal shaft of bilateral thighbone, proximal shaft of bilateral shinbone Suggestive of: -non specific arthritis bilateral articulatio genuss joint with infarct in distal shaft of bilateral thighbones and proximal shaft of bilateral shinbone.PreventionAt the present, there is no known bar but we can decrese the opportunity of AVN by extinguishing the hazard factors. Avoid Immuno-suppressants and other drugs such as Steroids, Glucocorticoid, Indocin, and Butazolidin and drugs that prevent the loss of bone mass such as Bisphosphonate ( diphosphonates ) .Foods that are good and nourish castanetss contain Calcium, Magnesium, Vitamin C and Vitamin D.TreatmentThe end in this instance is to better the map and to look into farther harm to the bone so that bone and joint survived. Without intervention, most people with the disease will see terrible hurting and restriction in motion. To find the most appropriate intervention, the physician considers the followers: the age of the patient, the phase of the disease ( early or late ) , the location and whether bone is a ffected over a little or big country, the underlying cause of osteonecrosis. The articulatio genus is the 2nd most common location for osteonecrosis after hip. The disease can be classified into 4 phases — phase I: patterned advance from no radiographical findings ; phase II: a little flattening of a the median condyle ; phase Three: visual aspect of a radiolucent lesion: and present IV: articular gristle prostration. There are two typical entities: ( I ) self-generated osteonecrosis of the articulatio genus ( SPONK ) , and ( two ) secondary osteonecrosis of the articulatio genus. They are differentiated by age of presentation, associated hazard factors ( e.g. usage of corticoid and alcohol addiction ) , location, lateralization, and condylar engagement. First stop hazard factors i.e. corticoid or intoxicant usage, intervention may non work unless usage of the substance is stopped. Early infarcts ( before X ray alterations are apparent ) can be treated with a surgical process called nucleus decompression and bone grafting or autologous bone marrow organ transplant to better circulation of affected country, but one time the condyle has lost its contour, nucleus decompression will non assist in hurting alleviation and farther prostration of the weight-bearing zone. The of import end to accomplish at this phase is the immobilisation of the affected country. Early Reconstruction, with debridement of the necrotic zone and replacing of the dead bone with autologous bone reinforced to back up the subchondral bone at hazard of prostration. Later phases of avascular mortification ( when X ray alterations have occurred ) necessarily advancement to a earnestly damaged bone and/or articulation that require arthroplasty or joint replacing surgery.DISCUSIONOsteonecrosis has been reported during or after the class of steroid intervention in several conditions such as reaping hook cell disease, systemic lupus erythematus, ulcerative inflammatory bowel disease and Crohn 'sdisease. Corticosteroids are believed to heighten the microvascular ischaemia by diminishing bone blood flow along with increased bone marrow force per unit area due to intra medullary lipocytes hypertrophy. The status can attest itself anyplace in the skeletal system, most normally in the femoral caput, but similar alterations have been reported in the distal articulatio genus, proximal shinbone, humerus, cubitus and the pes. No clear cut regulations exit sing the dosage and continuance of corticoid intervention followed by manifestation of osteonecrosis. Reported instances have documented it every bit early as 6 months to every bit tardily as three old ages. On carnal theoretical account it is reported to be found one hebdomad after the initial steroid disposal. Osteonecrosis begins perniciously and frequently the diagnosing is easy missed and delayed due to often normal field radiogram in early portion of the disease even in the presence of pathological alterations. MRI has bee n reported to be more sensitive and specific to observe osteonecrosis in an early stage. In diagnostic patients with negative field radiogram or MRI findings, the radionuclide bone scan is recommended. It is extremely sensitive for showing the countries of enhanced focal consumption before the alterations are evident on other imaging modes. Conservative intervention options including anodynes, braces, reduced weight bearing, bed remainder, deep heat modes and ROM exercisings are offered, but nil has been proved to be of much significance besides offering a impermanent diagnostic alleviation. None of the intervention options are believed to change the class of the disease. If diagnosed at an early phase, prostration of the subchondral bone and patterned advance of the disease may be averted in some patients by diminishing the joint emphasis and by developing mobility. Different surgical attacks including nucleus decompression, curettement, and bone graft have been tried with contradi ctory out comes, nevertheless, the ultimate intervention is frequently a joint replacing in badly involved articulations.DecisionIt is a common complication in patients with a history of anterior articulatio genus hurting of long continuance with history of injury or associated with other hazard factors of osteonecrosis genrally short-run or long-run corticoid. These instances are really hard to name initial phases with simple conventional imaging techniques. A careful scrutiny with high index of intuition is indispensable while covering with patients with anterior articulatio genus hurting. MRI and radionuclide bone scan are helpful in observing a field radiogram negative lesion. After clinical and radiological rating and verification of such lesion that affect the 2nd most common site after hip i.e. articulatio genus should be managed after proper theatrical production, taking to accomplish hurting free articulatio genus motion with non further deterioting the articulatio genus ma p and to better the morbidity of patient life.

The Communist Victory in the Vietnam War

| History | | The SHS History Co. Shahriar Syed | [The Vietnam War]| Describe why the factors which allowed the North Vietnamese Communist to win a war against a far wealthier, technologically superior power of the US. | ContentsPage No. Background2 Introduction2 Logistical Issues3 Causality Tolerance4 Economic Consequences5 Strategy & Tactics5 Communist Strategy5 Guerrilla Tactics6 American Strategy6 Tactical Response7 Vietnamese Terrain Advantages8 Leadership8 Bibliography9 Books9 Video9 Website9Background The Vietnam War is classed under Cold-War military conflict due to the political cause for the war. The conflict was fought between North Vietnam, reinforced by the communist allies and South Vietnam, supported by the US and some anti-communist countries. The military conflict mainly occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia from the 1st of November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on the 30th April 1975. Figure 1 shows the countries on opposing sides of the war Anti-Communists forces| Co mmunists| South Vietnam * United States * South Korea * Australia * Philippines * New Zealand * Thailand * Khmer Republic * Kingdom of Laos * Spain * Taiwan| * North Vietnam * Vietnam * Khmer Rouge * Pathet Lao * Soviet Union * China * North Korea * Czechoslovakia * Cuba * Bulgaria| The U. S. government justified their involvement in the war as a way to prevent the spread of communism to South Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government viewed the conflict as taking what is theirs from the French, later backed by the U.S and South Vietnam itself. Introduction Despite the far wealthier and far more superior powers of the U. S. North Vietnam managed to capture South Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos, meaning a decisive victory. In this report the factors that lead North Vietnam to victory will be describing each factor in detail. Logistical Issues During the Vietnam War there was a great imbalance of the logistical problems on opposing sides. The American forces were facing difficulties with su pporting combat forces.Not only did they need to support American soldiers but also the military forces of South Vietnam, Republic of Korea, Thailand, Australia and other allied countries. The U. S had over 16,000 km of supply lines that was quite ineffective; it was costing over 200 billion U. S dollars to maintain this supply of food, water and weaponry*. This massive amount of war cost were only realised around the closing of the war. This in addition with the mounting U. S causalities and the fact that victory remained elusive, the American opinion moved from approval to dissatisfaction with the War.The Communist forces however, had little to no worry about logistics, many portions of their supplies originated from themselves or from China. The supply routes were shorter and much more organized. The support made by the Chinese railway network in the Chinese provinces bordering North Vietnam was also a vital importance in importing war material. The American did not strike this n etwork for fear of Chinese intervention, however approximately 320,000 Chinese soldiers served the communist forces in repairing and upgrading miles of track, bridges, tunnels and stations.This made the supply chains cheaper and more effective, creating a major factor that lead to the decisive victory of communist forces. Figure 2 shows the U. S defence expenditure during the Vietnam War Figure 2 shows the U. S defence expenditure during the Vietnam War Causality Tolerance A key factor that leads to the communist takeover of South Vietnam was the numbers of causalities that they were willing to accept. The tolerance showed by the communists was comparably better than the anti-communists, in particular the U.S. The North Vietnamese ideology was very well summed up by a quote by North Vietnamese icon, Ho Chi Minh: â€Å"You can kill ten of my men for everyone I kill of yours, but even at those odds, you will lose and I will win† That quote was upheld by the North Vietnamese for ces, which is proved by the statistics: * 50,000-182,000 civilian dead * 533,000-1489,000 military dead * 600,000 missing This class of ideology was firstly supported by the anti-communists, in particular the U. S, with the quote by the President John F.Kennedy in 1961: â€Å"Let every nation know, whether, it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival of liberty† The U. S. did support this quote highly during the early years of the war but as the time passed many and protests by the public for bringing all the soldiers to home the anti-Communist soon dealt with the fact that it would be cheaper to grant Vietnam independence; the opposite of which the North Vietnamese were doing. Figure 3 (left) shows the American deaths by yearFigure 4 (above) shows the number of deaths recorded by service branch Economic Consequences The Vietnam War had several effects on the U. S. economy, which soon lead to them withdrawing their forces from Vietnam. The requirements of the war effort strained the nation’s production capabilities, which then lead to an imbalance of different sectors within the economy. Factories that produced consumer goods were being used to make war material, which caused controversy over the government’s handling of funding. Additionally the massive amount of defence expenditure was causing several problems within the American economy.The funds were going overseas, causing an imbalance in loan payment and a weak American Dollar, since no funds were returning to the country. Also, military expenditure, joined with domestic social spending created a deficit which fuelled inflation. Anti-war sentiments and dissatisfaction with the U. S government then started to eat into consumer confidence, interests rates rose restricting capital for businesses and consumers. These consequences then lead to an economic meltdown and then th e withdrawal of troops from Vietnam.Strategy & Tactics Communist Strategy The tactics used by the communist and the anti-communists were in different but as time went on tactics used by the belligerents became more of an action reaction style of warfare. The North Vietnamese had firstly made a clear and precise plan on the war and stuck to that plan as said before, deciding on a war of attrition, realising that they couldn’t defeat the U. S which was smart considering it was the world’s superpower at the time. The North Vietnamese decided that they would continue to fight the U.S, planning to make the war as long, bloody and expensive for the Americans, in order to turn the American public opinion of the war against its involvement in Vietnam. This strategy was not too absurd, since it was proven successful against the French during the Indochina war (1950-54). General Vo Nguyen Giap, a principal commander during the war, was a key figure during the formation of North Vietnamese strategy developed a three-phase view into how the war will undergo: 1. Guerrilla bands would be formed and trained, and would establish bases. They would also begin infiltration, creating links with the South Vietnamese peasants.This phase of the Giap’s strategy was proven successful as throughout the 1960s, the majority of fighting was done by the South Vietnamese communists. 2. Ambush and assassination would be used to challenge the ARVN (Army of the Republic of Vietnam, also known as the South Vietnamese Army) 3. Conventional warfare would then be partaken by the North Vietnamese army. Giap’s war of attrition was conducted very well providing flexibility and concealment. Most operation’s done by the night they would move troops and supplies, lay mines, set booby traps and arrange ambushes; this became very crucial towards the end of the war.Guerrilla Tactics Guerrilla tactics were used greatly during the war. Guerrilla tactics or guerrilla warfare uses military tactics by a small number of soldier or armed civilians. The North Vietnamese used a tactic known as ‘hit and run’ which involves ambushes with mines and bobby traps to surprise or hinder the Americans, then the aim was to inflict as many casualties as possible by overwhelming them for a short period of time and then withdraw before the Americans or the South Vietnamese could counter attack with artillery support of an air strike.This tactic was used on more supplies than actually men since the Communists Another strategy used by the Vietnamese was known ‘shoot and scoot’, involving attacking a American or South Vietnamese base with mortars or artillery, normally at night, before they could return fire. An hour later, another attack would be made from a different location. This tactic was aimed to draw guards out of the base into an ambush or they’re would be more guards on patrol so they could simply shoot them down with the use of sn ipers, this however was very rare since sniper training was limited to a few guerrilla groups.Figure 5 shows a Punji stick exhibit form the National Museum of the Marine Corps. This pit would usually be covered in natural undergrowth Figure 5 shows a Punji stick exhibit form the National Museum of the Marine Corps. This pit would usually be covered in natural undergrowth The North Vietnamese used booby traps extensively throughout the Vietnam War and very effectively. Not only did the booby traps maim and kill many Americans but psychological reports showed that that they never felt safe.Bobby traps involved not only explosive, like mines and grenade triggering bobby traps, but also non-explosive traps like the deep pits, projectiles, crossbows, spiked mud balls all being triggered by a trip wire. The most famous of the non-explosive traps is known as Punji sticks where fire hardened bamboo stakes were smeared with excrement in a pit so that if the American soldier survived the fall onto the spike that they may die from blood poisoning. American StrategyThe American strategy throughout the Vietnam War was also a war of attrition; however they simply intended to use their vast amount of resources and overwhelming firepower, to make the war too costly for the communist allies to continue fighting. This ideology may have been similar but Ho Chi Minh, leader of PAVN (People’s Army of Vietnam), rightly predicted that the lack of political will would lead the American’s to withdraw from a long and bloody war. Their discipline and morale was not strong enough to sustain them throughout the war.The American forces were also made a grave mistake by measuring their successes in the number of bombing raids they carried out and the body count of Vietnamese communists dead – they believed that there was a crossover point which represented the rate at which the PAVN could be killed, faster than they were being replenished. What they didn’t realis e was most causalities that were dealt were civilians rather than soldiers. There initial strategy was flawed so their basis of their tactics would be useless. Another mistake that the U. S attempted was the ‘Hearts and Minds’ program.Which provided aid of the destroyed villages in wore torn areas, and attempted to gain the support of South Vietnamese people. Despite the obvious destruction caused by the bombs they dropped which resulted in high civilian casualties, the US government still saw the program as necessary. This money could have been used in more effective ways to help them win the war. Tactical Response In response to guerrilla warfare used by the communists the Americans used only one main counter guerrilla tactics which adopted tactics that would kill as many of the enemy as possible with minimum risk to their forces.Search and destroy missions became a crucial US and ARVN tactic. These involved armoured carriers to move through potential enemy hot spots in search of as many enemy bases as possible. Tanks or soldiers were flown in by helicopters and then quickly flown out before any ambushes can take place. This aimed to locate, occupy and destroy as many of the enemy as possible, either in a fire fight using hand held firearms or calling in an airstrike. This tactic had only one major flaw that was the helicopter. Figure 6 shows a CH 47 Chinooks used to delivery of supplies Figure 6 shows CH 47 Chinooks used to delivery of supplies The CH 47 Chinooks was used for troops transport and moving heavy equipment and was the singularly most important tactical weapon the anti-communist used. This technology did allow the tactic search and destroy much easier with air cavalry but the major problem with the tactic was that US and ARVN troops never spent long in the country side meaning that it would always remain under communist control. Vietnamese Terrain Advantages When fighting the Vietnamese had a crucial advantage that they were able to use the terrain in their favour.Forces in America were not fully equipped and trained for the techniques needed for military units to survive and fight in jungle terrain. The forces were to be trained for the limited lines of sight and arcs of fire, logistical training due to know roads for vehicles and the inherent tropical diseases that have to be prevented or treated by medical service. Most men did not go through this training causing the US forces to struggle. The Vietnamese however underwent this training due to the close proximity of jungle and the large likely hood that they would need to fight in the jungle in order to protect their country.The terrain also made guerrilla warfare easier for the North Vietnamese due to dense vegetation. Leadership Leadership by opposing sides by the war were very different and was a great advantage by the North Vietnamese, this was due to the number of allies on the anti-communist. America, South Vietnam, South Korea, Australia as well as o ther countries all had a say in which the war should be carried. The Vietnamese though had a very systematic and organized view of leadership. At the head of the PAVN was Ho Chi Minh both the president and prime minister and below him was trusted generals, commanders etc. these people were the key figures of the war even though the Soviet Union and China was involved). This made this allowed the message of the war for them to become clear on the communist Vietnamese side. It also had very little room for argument since each and every general and leader had a common interest. The anti-communist side was facing numerous problems as many countries did not want to lose men but the US were at first willing to lose men in order to contain communism and the quote made by John F. Kennedy summarises there oint of view (refer to page 4). All in all, the anti-communist were not agreeing on points for the war which made progress very difficult. Bibliography Books Moore, Harold G. , 1922-We were soldiers once -and young : Ia Drang, the battle that changed the war in VietnamMOORE, H. G. , & GALLOWAY, J. L. (1992). We were soldiers once -and young: Ia Drang, the battle that changed the war in Vietnam. New York, Random House. Video JohnSmithTheSecond (2009)  YouTube – First Kill – Vietnam War Documentary 1/8. [online] Available at: http://www. youtube. om/watch? v=ldzld4myS6w [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012]. JohnSmithTheSecond (2009)  YouTube – First Kill – Vietnam War Documentary 2/8. [online] Available at: http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=gwhGzOEtReQ&feature=relmfu [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012]. JohnSmithTheSecond (2009)  YouTube – First Kill – Vietnam War Documentary 3/8. [online] Available at: http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=ripjd0FbEJo&feature=relmfu [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012]. JohnSmithTheSecond (2009)  YouTube – First Kill – Vietnam War Documentary 4/8. [online] Available at: http://www. youtube. com/watch? =0K5vz5UXobs &feature=relmfu [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012]. Website Awm. gov. au (1962)  Vietnam War 1962–75 | Australian War Memorial. [online] Available at: http://www. awm. gov. au/atwar/vietnam. asp [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012]. En. wikipedia. org (1955)  Vietnam War – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. [online] Available at: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Vietnam_War [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012]. En. wikipedia. org (2007)  Jungle warfare – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. [online] Available at: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Jungle_warfare [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012]. En. ikipedia. org (1946)  Ho Chi Minh – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. [online] Available at: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012]. En. wikipedia. org (1987)  Guerrilla warfare – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. [online] Available at: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012]. En. wikipedia. org (1971)  Strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. [online] Available at: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Strategy_and_tactics_of_guerrilla_warfare [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012].Encyclopedia2. thefreedictionary. com (1869)  Guerrilla tactics definition of Guerrilla tactics in the Free Online Encyclopedia.. [online] Available at: http://encyclopedia2. thefreedictionary. com/Guerrilla+tactics [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012]. History. com (1960)  Vietnam War — History. com Articles, Video, Pictures and Facts. [online] Available at: http://www. history. com/topics/vietnam-war [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012]. Pbs. org (1996)  Battlefield:Vietnam | Guerrilla Tactics. [online] Available at: http://www. pbs. org/battlefieldvietnam/guerrilla/index. tml [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012]. Rosenberg, J. (1967)  Vietnam War – A History of the Vietnam War. [online] Available at: http://history1900s. about. com/od/vietnamwar/a/vietnamwar. htm [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012]. Time. com (1998)  Ho Chi Minh – TIME. [online] Available at: http://www. time. com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988162,00. html [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012]. Vietnam-war. commemoration. gov. au (1962)  Australia and the Vietnam War. [online] Available at: http://vietnam-war. commemoration. gov. au/ [Accessed: 18 Oct 2012].